Which of the following has not functioned to discourage substantial police involvement with white-collar crime?

A. The fact that media images of white-collar crime create less public outrage than media images of conventional violent crime.
B. The traditional difficulty encountered by police in distinguishing between legal and illegal business practices.
C. Less public and political pressure to deal with white-collar crime.
D. The determination by the police that far less harm results from white-collar crime.

Option D is not an example of something that has discouraged police involvement in white-collar crime; rather, it is a reason for less police involvement. Media portrayal, difficult legal distinctions, and lack of public pressure are true discouraging factors.

Explanation:

The question is asking which of the options does not act as a deterrent to substantial police involvement in addressing white-collar crime. The correct choice is D. The determination by the police that far less harm results from white-collar crime. This option is indeed a reason for less police involvement, not something that has not functioned to discourage it. The significant harm caused by white-collar crime is often underestimated when compared to more visible street crime, which is often more sensationalized in media coverage.

Factors such as A. media images leading to less public outrage, B. difficulty distinguishing between legal and illegal business practices, and C. less public and political pressure to tackle white-collar crime have all contributed to less police involvement with such cases. This is despite the far-reaching impact of white-collar crime, which can involve enormous financial losses and harm to society, as demonstrated by major fraud cases like that of Bernie Madoff.