How did European rulers react to the Protestant Reformation?

A. They embraced Protestantism and converted their kingdoms.
B. They enforced strict Catholic orthodoxy and persecuted Protestants.
C. They remained neutral and allowed religious freedom.
D. They formed alliances with Protestant leaders against the Catholic Church.

The response of European rulers to the Protestant Reformation varied broadly, ranging from embracing Protestantism to strict enforcement of Catholic orthodoxy and leading to wars of religion. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 affirmed religious independence for entities within the Holy Roman Empire.

Explanation:

European rulers had varied responses to the Protestant Reformation. Some, like in northern Germany, embraced Protestantism and converted their kingdoms, as per Luther's teachings. This is seen in the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's allowance of Lutheran rulers to establish Lutheranism as the official religion within their lands after the 1555 Peace of Augsburg.

On the other side, countries like Spain, a powerful Catholic empire, tried to suppress Protestantism. They not only staunchly opposed the new faith but also invested considerable efforts to eradicate Protestantism in Europe.

Besides Catholic and Protestant divisions, there were also wars of religion, such as the Thirty Years' War, where Catholic and Protestant states battled in the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war in 1648, marked the Protestant victory and declared religious independence for the entities within the Holy Roman Empire.

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